Critical Thinking

From IAE-Pedia

Contents 1 Introduction 2 Cognitive Development, Expertise, and Critical thinking 3 Domain Independent vs. Domain Specific 4 Computer vs. Human 5 Educational Implications 6 References 7 Author or Authors

"An intellectual is someone whose mind watches itself." (Albert Camus; French novelist, essayist and playwright, who received the 1957 Nobel Prize for literature.)

"I believe that a scientist looking at nonscientific problems is just as dumb as the next guy." (Richard Feynman, who received the 1965 Nobel Prize for Physics. )

[edit] Introduction

Quoting from the Wikipedia:

… the process of critical thinking involves acquiring information and evaluating it to reach a well-justified conclusion or answer. Part of critical thinking comprises informal logic. However, a large part of critical thinking goes beyond informal logic and includes assessment of beliefs and identification of prejudice, bias, propaganda, self-deception, distortion, misinformation, etc. Given research in cognitive psychology, some educators believe that schools should focus more on teaching their students critical thinking skills, intellectual standards, and cultivating intellectual traits (such as intellectual humility, intellectual empathy, intellectual integrity, and fair-mindedness) than on memorizing facts by rote learning.

Problem solving and critical thinking are closely connected fields of study. Diane Halpern's is a world class expert in critical thinking as a component of cognitive psychology. Quoting from her article "Why Wisdom?" (2002). Educational Psychologist. 36(4), 253-256.

The term critical thinking is the use of those cognitive skills or strategies that increases the probability of a desirable outcome. It is purposeful, reasoned, and goal directed. It is the kind of thinking involved in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihood, and making decisions. Critical thinkers use these skills appropriately, without prompting, and usually with conscious intent, in a variety of settings. That is, they are predisposed to think critically. When we think critically, we are evaluating the outcomes of our thought processes—how good a decision is or how well a problem is solved. Critical thinking also involves evaluating the thinking processes—the reasoning that went into the conclusion we have arrived at or the kinds of factors considered in making a decision.

Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis provides a college student-oriented definition of critical thinking. Quoting from their Website:

[Critical Thinking is the] ability of students to analyze information and ideas carefully and logically from multiple perspectives. This skill is demonstrated by the ability of students to:

• analyze complex issues and make informed decisions;
• synthesize information in order to arrive at reasoned conclusions;
• evaluate the logic, validity, and relevance of data;
• use knowledge and understanding in order to generate and explore new questions.

A 2007 article by Yoram Harpaz traces the history of writing about critical thinking to John Dewey in the 1930s and David Russell in the early 1940s. Quoting from this article:

What is right thinking or critical thinking? Russell based his definition on the habit of thinking. The development of habits of critical thinking, he wrote, is more important than the transfer of knowledge or facts, as the latter tend to be forgotten while the former tend to persist. In another article he based critical thinking on four components: knowledge of the field or fields in which thinking is being done, attitudes and habits of questioning and suspending judgments, the application of logic and scientific method to the problem situation, and taking action in light of this line of thinking (Russell, 1943, p. 746). In a third attempt to define critical thinking Russell cut short the fourth component and offered a concise definition: "This [critical thinking] seems to involve attitude plus knowledge of facts plus some thinking skills" (Russell, 1960, p. 651).

I would like to construct from this definition the formula for teaching thinking. If we substitute good thinking for critical thinking, disposition for attitude, and understanding for knowledge (substitutions that will be explained below), we arrive at the formula: Good Thinking = Thinking Skills + Thinking Dispositions + Understanding of Knowledge. This formula is implied in the writings of various theoreticians of teaching thinking, and it suggests a key to an initial mapping of various theories and programs included in teaching thinking.

In summary, critical thinking is relevant in every academic discipline and is often listed as a major goal of formal education. Critical thinking involves a combination of thinking skills, thinking disposition, and understanding of the content area or discipline one is thinking about.

Researchers in artificial intelligence freely admit that at the current time, critical thinking is an activity in which humans far exceed artificially intelligent computers. Some believe that this will always be the case, while others argue that in some modest period of time (perhaps as little as 50 years), computers will overtake humans.

[edit] Cognitive Development, Expertise, and Critical thinking

Students move up the Piagetian and other cognitive development scales through a combination of increasing brain maturity and appropriate informal and formal education. The increasing level of brain maturity and education facilitate an increasing level of critical thinking.

This can tie in well with increasing levels of expertise in an academic discipline or sub-discipline. A high level of critical thinking in an academic discipline is an important component of a high level problem-solving aspects of expertise in the discipline.

[edit] Domain Independent vs. Domain Specific

People tend to use the term discipline when talking about a large and inclusive discipline of study, a sub-discipline, an interdisciplinary discipline, and so on. Each academic discipline or area of study can be defined by a combination of general things such as:

• The types of problems, tasks, and activities it addresses.
• Its accumulated accomplishments such as results, achievements, products, performances, scope, power, uses, impact on the societies of the world, and so on.
• Its history, culture, and language, including notation and special vocabulary.
• Its methods of teaching, learning, assessment, and thinking. What it does to preserve and sustain its work and pass it on to future generations.
• Its tools, methodologies, and types of evidence and arguments used in solving problems, accomplishing tasks, and recording and sharing accumulated results.
• The knowledge and skills that separate and distinguish among: a) a novice; b) a person who has a personally useful level of competence; c) a reasonably competent person, employable in the discipline; d) an expert; and e) a world-class expert.

There has been a lot of research on domain-dependent and domain-independent aspects of problem solving. It seems to me that the same line of thinking would lead to research on domain-independent and domain-specific aspects of critical thinking. Quoting Richard Feynman:

I believe that a scientist looking at nonscientific problems is just as dumb as the next guy.

My conclusion is that in our formal educational system, each teacher has a responsibility of helping students increase their levels of critical thinking within the disciplines the teacher teaches. In addition, each teacher has a responsibility of helping students gain in interdisciplinary, general-purpose critical thinking knowledge and skills.

[edit] Computer vs. Human

The issue of whether a computer system can think is a widely debated aspect of artificial intelligence. Some critical thinkers argue that we are making progress toward having AI systems that can think, while others feel the first group is deluding itself.

There is no doubt that computers systems are getting better at solving certain types of problems and accomplishing certain types of tasks using the data, information, and knowledge available to them. Some of the methods used by computers to solve problems and accomplish tasks are based on how humans and human brains do the same thing. Others use approaches that are quite different from the way that humans approach the problems and tasks.

[edit] Educational Implications

We can ask and discuss the question: "Can a computer system do critical thinking—now, or ever?" Regardless of current insights into answers to this question, humans now routinely work with and make use of the type of "thinking" that computer systems do. Thus, I believe that IAE should help prepare students to work with computer systems that do "computer thinking" and with humans who do "human critical thinking."

Here is another way of looking at this situation. Humans can do a certain type of thinking. Computer systems can do a certain type of "artificial intelligence" thinking. The "artificial intelligence thinking" will get better through building better computers and through research. A good education prepares people to deal with this changing situation.

Thus, I recommend that we think of "critical thinking" as a combination of learning how to human thinking that appropriately takes into consideration the AI capabilities of computers, and learning how to do human thinking at a better/different level than what computers can do.

[edit] References

Foundation for Critical Thinking (n.d.). Retrieved 2/20/08: http://www.criticalthinking.org/articles/index.cfm. Quoting from the Website:

The Center conducts advanced research and disseminates information on critical thinking.

Each year it sponsors an annual International Conference on Critical Thinking and Educational Reform. It has worked with the College Board, the National Education Association, the U.S. Department of Education, as well as numerous colleges, universities, and school districts to facilitate the implementation of critical thinking instruction focused on intellectual standards.

The following three studies (available free on the Website) demonstrate:

1. the fact that, as a rule, critical thinking is not presently being effectively taught at the high school, college and university level, and yet
2. it is possible to do so.

Harpaz, Yorman (2007). Approaches to teaching thinking: Toward a conceptual mapping of the field. TC Record. Retrieved 8/14/07: http://www.tcrecord.org/Content.asp?ContentID=12260.

Strauss, Valerie (2/18/08). Relentless Questioning Paves a Deeper Path. Washingtonpost.com. retrieved 2/20/08: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/02/17/AR2008021702206.html. Quoting from the article:

The phrase has become a mantra among educators from pre-kindergarten through graduate school who call it a central learning goal, as well as among industry leaders who say they are worried that U.S. schools are not producing enough critical thinkers to meet the needs of the 21st-century economy.

Institutes, foundations, councils and centers are devoted to thinking about critical thinking. Conferences are held on it, papers are written and books are published. Standardized tests are given to assess it, and educational programs are sold with a proposed path to the promised critical-thinking land.

Yet there is no agreed-upon definition of what critical thinking is or how it can be developed.

[edit] Author or Authors

The initial version of this article was written by Dave Moursund.